Parts of an Income Statement, part 1

The first and most important part of an income statement is the line reporting sales revenue. Businesses need to be consistent from year to year regarding when they record sales. For some business, the timing of recording sales revenue is a major problem, especially when the final acceptance by the customer depends on performance tests or other conditions that have to be satisfied. For example, when does an ad agency report the sales revenue for a campaign it's prepared for its client? When the work is completed and sent to the client for approval? When the client approves it? When the ads appear in the media? Or when the billing is complete? These are issues a company must decide on for reporting sales revenue, and they must be consistent each year, and the timing of reporting should be noted on the financial statement. The next line in an income statement is the cost of goods sold expense. There are three methods of reporting cost of goods sold expense. One is called "first in-first out" (FIFO); another is the "last in-last out" (LIFO) method and the last is the average cost method. Cost of goods sold expense is a huge item in an income statement and how it's reported can make a substantial impact on the reported bottom line. Other items in an income statement include inventory write-downs. A business should regularly inspect its inventory carefully to determine any losses due to theft, damage and deterioration, and to apply the lower of cost or market (LCM) method. Bad debts are also an important component of the income statement. Bad debts are those owed to a business by customers who bought on credit (accounts receivable) but are not going to be paid. Again the timing of when bad debts are reported is crucial. Do you report it before or after any collection efforts are exhausted?

Measuring Costs

Measuring profits or net income is the most important thing accountants do. The second most important task is measuring costs. Costs are extremely important to running a business and managing them effectively can make a substantial difference in a company's bottom line. Any business that sells products needs to know its product costs and depending on what is being manufactured and/or sold, it can get complicated. Every step in the production process has to be tracked carefully from start to finish. Many manufacturing costs cannot be directly matched with particular products; these are called indirect costs. To calculate the full cost of each product manufactured, accountants devise methods for allocating indirect production costs to specific products. Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) provide few guidelines for measuring product cost. Accountants need to determine many other costs, in addition to product costs, such as the costs of the departments and other organizational units of the business; the cost of the retirement plan for the company's employees; the cost of marketing and advertising; the cost of restructuring the business or the cost of a major recall of products sold by the company, should that ever become necessary. Cost accounting serves two broad purposes: measuring profit and furnishing relevant information to managers. What makes it confusing is that there's no one set method for measuring and reporting costs, although accuracy is paramount. Cost accounting can fall anywhere on a continuum between conservative or expansive. The phrase actual cost depends entirely on the particular methods used to measure cost. These can often be as subjective and nebulous as some systems for judging sports. Again accuracy is extremely important. The total cost of goods or products sold is the first and usually largest expense deducted from sales revenue in measuring profit.

Types of Costs

Direct costs are those costs that cann be directly attributed to a product or product line, or to one source of sales revenue, or one business unit or operation of the business. An example of a direct cost would be the cost of tires on a new automobile. Indirect costs are very different and can't be attached to any specific product, unit or activity. The cost of labor or benefits for an auto manufacturer is certainly a cost, but it can't be attached to any one vehicle. Each business has to devise a method of allocating indirect costs to different products, sources of sales revenue, business units, etc. Most allocation methods are less than perfect, and generally end up being arbitrary to one degree or another. Business managers and accounts should always keep an eye on the allocation methods used for indirect costs and take the cost figures produced by these methods with a grain of salt. Fixed costs are those costs that stay the same over a relatively broad range of sales volume or production output. They're like an albatross around the neck of business and a company must sell its product at a high enough profit to at least break even. Variable costs can increase and decrease in proportion to changes in sales or production level. Variable costs vary proportionately with changes in production/ Relevant costs are essentially future costs that could be incurred, depending on what strategic course a business takes. If an auto manufacturer decides to increase production, but the cost of tires goes up, than that cost needs to be taken into consideration. Irrelevant costs are those that should be disregarded when deciding on a future course of action. They're costs that could cause you to make a wrong decision. Whereas relevant costs are future costs, irrelevant costs are those costs that were incurred in the past. The money's gone.

About GAAP

While many businesses assume that accountants are bound by generally accepted accounting practices and that these are inviolate, nothing could be further from the truth. Everything is subject to interpretation, and GAAP is no different. For one thing, GAAP themselves permit alternative accounting methods to be used for certain expenses and for revenue in certain specialized types of businesses. For another, GAAP methods require that decisions be made about the timing for recording revenue and expenses, or they require that key factors be quantified. Deciding on the timing of revenue and expenses and putting definite values on these factors require judgments, estimates and interpretations. The mission of GAAP over the years has been to standardize accounting methods in order to bring about uniformity across all businesses. But alternative methods are still permitted for certain basic business expenses. No tests are required to determine whether one method is more preferable than another. A business is free to select whichever method it wants. But it must choose which cost of good sold expense method to use and which depreciation expense method to use. For other expenses and for sales revenue, one general accounting method has been established; there are no alternative methods. However, a business has a fair amount of latitude in actually implementing the methods. One business applies the accounting methods in a conservative manner, and another business applies the methods in a more liberal manner. The end result is more diversity between businesses in their profit measure and financial statements than one might expect, considering that GAAP have been evolving since 1930. The pronouncement on GAAP prepared by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) is now more than 1000 pages long. And that doesn't even include the rules and regulations issued by the federal regulatory agency that jurisdiction over the financial reporting and accounting methods of publicly owned businesses - the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).

What is a sole proprietorship?

A sole proprietorship is the business or an individual who has decided not to carry his business as a separate legal entity, such as a corporation, partnership or limited liability company. This kind of business is not a separate entity. Any time a person regularly provides services for a fee, sells things at a flea market or engage in any business activity whose primary purpose is to make a profit, that person is a sole proprietor. If they carry on business activity to make profit or income, the IRS requires that you file a separate Schedule C "Profit or Loss From a Business" with your annual individual income tax return. Schedule C summarizes your income and expenses from your sole proprietorship business. As the sold proprietor of a business, you have unlimited liability, meaning that if your business can't pay all it liabilities, the creditors to whom your business owes money can come after your personal assets. Many part-time entrepreneurs may not know this, but it's an enormous financial risk. If they are sued or can't pay their bills, they are personally liable for the business's liabilities. A sole proprietorship has no other owners to prepare financial statements for, but the proprietor should still prepare these statements to know how his business is doing. Banks usually require financial statements from sole proprietors who apply for loans. A partnership needs to maintain a separate capital or ownership account for each partners. The total profit of the firm is allocated into these capital accounts, as spelled out in the partnership agreement. Although sole proprietors don't have separate invested capital from retained earnings like corporations do, they still need to keep these two separate accounts for owners' equity - not only to track the business, but for the benefit of any future buyers of the business.

What are partnerships and limited liability companies?

Some business owners choose to create partnerships or limited liability companies instead of a corporation. A partnership can also be called a firm, and refers to an association of a group of individuals working together in a business or professional practice. While corporations have rigid rules about how they are structured, partnerships and limited liability companies allow the division of management authority, profit sharing and ownership rights among the owners to be very flexible. Partnerships fall into two categories. General partners are subject to unlimited liability. If a business can't pay its debts, its creditors can demand payment from the general partners' personal assets. General partners have the authority and responsibility to manage the business. They're analogous to the president and other officers of a corporation. Limited partners escape the unlimited liability that the general partners have. They are not responsible as individuals, for the liabilities of the partnership. These are junior partners who have ownership rights to the profits of the business, but they don't generally participate in the high-level management of the business. A partnership must have one or more general partners. A limited liability company (LLC) is becoming more prevalent among smaller businesses. An LLC is like a corporation regarding limited liability and it's like a partnership regarding the flexibility of dividing profit among the owners. Its advantage over other types of ownership is its flexibility in how profit and management authority are determined. This can have a downside. The owners must enter into very detailed agreements about how the profits and management responsibilities are divided. It can get very complicated and generally requires the services of a lawyer to draw up the agreement. A partnership or LLC agreement specifies how profits will be divided among the owners. While stockholders of a corporation receive a share of profit that's directly related to how many shares they own, a partnership or LLC does not have to divide profit according to how much each partner invested. Invested capital is only of the factors that are used in allocating and distributing profits.

What is a corporation?

Most businesses start out as a small company, owned by one person or by a partnership. The most common type of business when there are multiple owners is a corporation. The law sees a corporation as real, live person. Like an adult, a corporation is treated as a distinct and independent individual who has rights and responsibilities. A corporation's "birth certificate" is the legal form that is filed with the Secretary of State of the state in which the corporation is created, or incorporated. It must have a legal name, just like a person. A corporation is separate from its owners. It's responsible for its own debts. The bank can't come after the stockholders if a corporation goes bankrupt. A corporation issues ownership share to persons who invest money in the business. These ownership shares are documented by stock certificates, which state the name of the owner and how many shares are owned. the corporation has to keep a register, or list, of how many shares everyone owns. Owners of a corporation are called stockholders because they own shares of stock issued by the corporation. One share of stock is one unit of ownership; how much one share is worth depends on the total number of shares that the business issues. the more shares a business issues, the smaller the percentage of total owners' equity each share represents. Stock shares come in different classes of stock. Preferred stockholders are promised a certain amount of cash dividends each year. Common stockholders have the most risk. If a corporation ends up in financial trouble, it's required to pay off its liabilities first. If any money is left over, then that money goes first to the preferred stockholders. If anything is left over after that, then that money is distributed to the common stockholders.

Basic Accounting Principles

Accounting has been defined as, by Professor of Accounting at the University of Michigan William A Paton as having one basic function: "facilitating the administration of economic activity. This function has two closely related phases: 1) measuring and arraying economic data; and 2) communicating the results of this process to interested parties." As an example, a company's accountants periodically measure the profit and loss for a month, a quarter or a fiscal year and publish these results in a statement of profit and loss that's called an income statement. These statements include elements such as accounts receivable (what's owed to the company) and accounts payable (what the company owes). It can also get pretty complicated with subjects like retained earnings and accelerated depreciation. This at the higher levels of accounting and in the organization. Much of accounting though, is also concerned with basic bookkeeping. This is the process that records every transaction; every bill paid, every dime owed, every dollar and cent spent and accumulated. But the owners of the company, which can be individual owners or millions of shareholders are most concerned with the summaries of these transactions, contained in the financial statement. The financial statement summarizes a company's assets. A value of an asset is what it cost when it was first acquired. The financial statement also records what the sources of the assets were. Some assets are in the form of loans that have to be paid back. Profits are also an asset of the business. In what's called double-entry bookkeeping, the liabilities are also summarized. Obviously, a company wants to show a higher amount of assets to offset the liabilities and show a profit. The management of these two elements is the essence of accounting. There is a system for doing this; not every company or individual can devise their own systems for accounting; the result would be chaos!

What is financial window dressing?

Financial managers can do certain things to increase or decrease net income that's recorded in the year. This is called profit smoothing, income smoothing or just plain old window dressing. This isn't the same as fraud, or cooking the books. Most profit smoothing involves pushing some amount of revenue and/or expenses into other years than they would normally be recorded. A common technique for profit smoothing is to delay normal maintenance and repairs. This is referred to as deferred maintenance. Many routine and recurring maintenance costs required for autos, trucks, machines, equipment and buildings can be delayed, or deferred until later. A business that spends a significant amount of money for employee training and development may delay these programs until the next year so the expense in the current year is lower. A company can cut back on its current year's outlays for market research and product development. A business can ease up on its rules regarding when slow-paying customers are written off to expense as bad debts or uncollectible accounts receivable. The business can put off recording some of its bad debts expense until the next reporting year. A fixed asset that is not being actively used may have very little current or future value to a business. Instead of writing off the un-depreciated cost of the impaired asset as a loss in the current year, the business might delay the write-off until the next year. You can see how manipulating the timing of certain expenses can make an impact on net income. This isn't illegal although companies can go too far in massaging the numbers so that its financial statements are misleading. For the most part though, profit smoothing isn't much more than robbing Peter to pay Paul. Accountants refer to these as compensatory effects. The effects next year offset and cancel out the effects in the current year. Less expense this year is balanced by more expense the next year.

Disclosure

Financial statements are the backbone of a complete financial report. In fact, a financial report is not complete if the three primary financial statements are not included. but a financial report is much more than just those statements. A financial report requires disclosures. This term refers to additional information provided in a financial report. Therefore, any comprehensive and ethical financial report must include not only the primary financial statements, but disclosures as well. The chief executive of a business (usually the CEO in a publicly held corporation) has the primary responsibility to make sure that the financial statements have been prepared according to generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) and the financial report provides adequate disclosures. He or she works with the chief financial officer or controller of the business to make sure that the financial report meets the standard of adequate disclosures. Some common methods of disclosures include: --Footnotes that provide information about the basic figures. Nearly all financial statements require footnotes to provide additional information for several of the account balances in the financial statements. --Supplementary financial schedules and tables that provide more details than can be included in the body of the financial statements. --Other information may be required if the business is a public corporation subject to federal regulations regarding financial reporting to its stockholders. Other information is voluntary and not strictly required legally or according to GAAP. Some disclosures are required by various governing boards and agencies. These include: --The financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) has designated many standards. Its dictate regarding disclosure of the effects of stock options is one such standard. --The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) mandates disclosure of a broad range of information for publicly held companies. --International businesses have to abide by disclosure standards adopted by the International Accounting Standards Board.

What happened in corporate accounting scandals?

When a corporation deliberately conceals or skews information to appear healthy and successful to its shareholders, it has committed corporate or shareholder fraud. Corporate fraud may involve a few individuals or many, depending on the extent to which employees are informed of their company's financial practices. Directors of corporations may fudge financial records or disguise inappropriate spending. Fraud committed by corporations can be devastating, not only for outside investors who have made share purchases based on false information, but for employees who, through 401ks, have invested their retirement savings in company stock. Some recent corporate accounting scandals have consumed the news media and ruined hundreds of thousands of lives of the employees who had their retirement invested in the companies that defrauded them and other investors. The nuts and bolts of some of these accounting scandals are as follows: WorldCom admitted to adjusting accounting records to cover its operation costs and present a successful front to shareholders. Nine billion dollars in discrepancies were discovered before the telecom corporation went bankrupt in July of 2002. One of the hidden expenses was $408 million given to Bernard Ebbers (WorldCom's CEO) in undisclosed personal loans. At Tyco, shareholders were not informed of the $170 million in loans that were taken by Tyco's CEO, CFO, and chief legal officer. The loans, many of which were taken interest free and later written off as benefits, were not approved by Tyco's compensation committee. Kozlowski (former CEO), Swartz (former CFO), and Belnick (former chief legal officer) face continuing investigations by the SEC and the Tyco Corporation, which is now operating under Edward Breen and a new board of directors. At Enron, investigations against uncovered multiple acts of fraudulent behavior. Enron used illegal loans and partnerships with other companies to cover its multi-billion dollar debt. It presented erroneous accounting records to investors, and Arthur Anderson, its accounting firm, began shredding incriminating documentation weeks before the SEC could begin investigations. Money laundering, wire fraud, mail fraud, and securities fraud are just some of the indictments directors of Enron have faced and will continue to face as the investigation continues.

What happened at Enron?

Everyone knows at least a little about the Enron story and the devastation it created in the lives of is employees. It's a story that belongs in any discussion of ethical accounting processes and what happens when accounting standards and ethics are discarded for personal greed. Enron began in 1985 selling natural gas to gas companies and businesses. In 1996, energy markets were changed so that the price of energy could now be decided by competition among energy companies instead of being fixed by government regulations. With this change, Enron began to function more as a middleman than a traditional energy supplier, trading in energy contracts instead of buying and selling natural gas. Enron's rapid growth created excitement among investors and drove the stock price up. As Enron grew, it expanded into other industries such as Internet services, and its financial contracts became more complicated. In order to keep growing at this rate, Enron began to borrow money to invest in new projects. However, because this debt would make their earnings look less impressive, Enron began to create partnerships that would allow it to keep debt off of its books. One partnership created by Enron, Chewco Investments (named after the Star Wars character Chewbacca) allowed Enron to keep $600 million in debt off of the books it showed to the government and to people who own Enron stock. When this debt did not show up in Enron's reports, it made Enron seem much more successful than it actually was. In December 2000, Enron claimed to have tripled its profits in two years. In August 2001, Enron vice president Sherron Watkins sent an anonymous letter to the CEO of Enron, Kenneth Lay, describing accounting methods that she felt could lead Enron to "implode in a wave of accounting scandals." Also in August, CEO Kenneth Lay sent e-mails to his employees saying that he expected Enron stock prices to go up. Meanwhile, he sold off his own stock in Enron. On October 22nd, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) announced that Enron was under investigation. On November 8th, Enron said that it has overstated earnings for the past four years by $586 million and that it owed over $6 billion in debt by next year. With these announcements, Enron's stock price took a dive. This drop triggered certain agreements with investors that made it necessary for Enron to repay their money immediately. When Enron could not come up with the cash to repay its creditors, it declared for Chapter 11 bankruptcy.

Who uses forensic accountants?

Forensic accounting financial investigative specialists work with financial information for the purpose of conveying complicated issues in a manner that others can easily understand. While some forensic accountants and forensic accounting specialists are engaged in the public practice of forensic examination, others work in private industry for such entities as banks and insurance companies or governmental entities such as sheriff and police departments, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). The occupational fraud committed by employees usually involves the theft of assets. Embezzlement has been the most often committed fraud for the last 30 years. Employees may be involved in kickback schemes, identity theft, or conversion of corporate assets for personal use. The forensic accountant couples observation of the suspected employees with physical examination of assets, invigilation, inspection of documents, and interviews of those involved. Experience on these types of engagements enables the forensic accountant to offer suggestions as to internal controls that owners could implement to reduce the likelihood of fraud. At times, the forensic accountant may be hired by attorneys to investigate the financial trail of persons suspected of engaging in criminal activity. Information provided by the forensic accountant may be the most effective way of obtaining convictions. The forensic accountant may also be engaged by bankruptcy court when submitted financial information is suspect or if employees (including managers) are suspected of taking assets. Opportunities for qualified forensic accounting professionals abound in private companies. CEOs must now certify that their financial statements are faithful representations of the financial position and results of operations of their companies and rely more heavily on internal controls to detect any misstatement that would otherwise be contained in these financials. In addition to these activities, forensic accountants may be asked to determine the amount of the loss sustained by victims, testify in court as an expert witness and assist in the preparation of visual aids and written summaries for use in court.

What is forensic accounting?

Forensic accounting is the practice of utilizing accounting, auditing, and investigative skills to assist in legal matters. It encompasses 2 main areas - litigation support, investigation, and dispute resolution. Litigation support represents the factual presentation of economic issues related to existing or pending litigation. In this capacity, the forensic accounting professional quantifies damages sustained by parties involved in legal disputes and can assist in resolving disputes, even before they reach the courtroom. If a dispute reaches the courtroom, the forensic accountant may testify as an expert witness. Investigation is the act of determining whether criminal matters such as employee theft, securities fraud (including falsification of financial statements), identity theft, and insurance fraud have occurred. As part of the forensic accountant's work, he or she may recommend actions that can be taken to minimize future risk of loss. Investigation may also occur in civil matters. For example, the forensic accountant may search for hidden assets in divorce cases. Forensic accounting involves looking beyond the numbers and grasping the substance of situations. It's more than accounting...more than detective work...it's a combination that will be in demand for as long as human nature exists. Who wouldn't want a career that offers such stability, excitement, and financial rewards? In short, forensic accounting requires the most important quality a person can possess: the ability to think. Far from being an ability that is specific to success in any particular field, developing the ability to think enhances a person's chances of success in life, thus increasing a person's worth in today's society. Why not consider becoming a forensic accountant on the Forensic Accounting Masters Degree link on the left-hand navigation bar.

What are auditors?

Accountants and auditors help to ensure that the Nation's firms are run efficiently, its public records kept accurately, and its taxes paid properly and on time. They perform these vital functions by offering an increasingly wide array of business and accounting services, including public, management, and government accounting, as well as internal auditing, to their clients. Beyond carrying out the fundamental tasks of the occupation-preparing, analyzing, and verifying financial documents in order to provide information to clients-many accountants now are required to possess a wide range of knowledge and skills. Accountants and auditors are broadening the services they offer to include budget analysis, financial and investment planning, information technology consulting, and limited legal services. Specific job duties vary widely among the four major fields of accounting: public, management, and government accounting and internal auditing. Internal auditors verify the accuracy of their organization's internal records and check for mismanagement, waste, or fraud. Internal auditing is an increasingly important area of accounting and auditing. Internal auditors examine and evaluate their firms' financial and information systems, management procedures, and internal controls to ensure that records are accurate and controls are adequate to protect against fraud and waste. They also review company operations, evaluating their efficiency, effectiveness, and compliance with corporate policies and procedures, laws, and government regulations. There are many types of highly specialized auditors, such as electronic data-processing, environmental, engineering, legal, insurance premium, bank, and health care auditors. As computer systems make information timelier, internal auditors help managers to base their decisions on actual data, rather than personal observation. Internal auditors also may recommend controls for their organization's computer system, to ensure the reliability of the system and the integrity of the data. Government accountants and auditors work in the public sector, maintaining and examining the records of government agencies and auditing private businesses and individuals whose activities are subject to government regulations or taxation. Accountants employed by Federal, State, and local governments guarantee that revenues are received and expenditures are made in accordance with laws and regulations. Those employed by the Federal Government may work as Internal Revenue Service agents or in financial management, financial institution examination, or budget analysis and administration.

What is the FASB?

The FASB is one organization that provides standardized guidelines for financial reporting. The mission of the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) is to establish and improve standards of financial accounting and reporting for the guidance and education of the public, including issuers, auditors and users of financial information. Accounting standards are essential to the efficient functioning of the economy because decisions about the allocation of resources rely heavily on credible, concise, transparent and understandable financial information. Financial information about the operations and financial position of individual entities also is used by the public in making various other kinds of decisions. To accomplish its mission, the FASB acts to: --Improve the usefulness of financial reporting by focusing on the primary characteristics of relevance and reliability and on the qualities of comparability and consistency; --Keep standards current to reflect changes in methods of doing business and changes in the economic environment; --Consider promptly any significant areas of deficiency in financial reporting that might be improved through the standard-setting process; --Promote the international convergence of accounting standards concurrent with improving the quality of financial reporting; and --Improve the common understanding of the nature and purposes of information contained in financial reports. The FASB develops broad accounting concepts as well as standards for financial reporting. It also provides guidance on implementation of standards. Concepts are useful in guiding the Board in establishing standards and in providing a frame of reference, or conceptual framework, for resolving accounting issues. The framework will help to establish reasonable bounds for judgment in preparing financial information and to increase understanding of, and confidence in, financial information on the part of users of financial reports. It also will help the public to understand the nature and limitations of information supplied by financial reporting.

Managing the Bottom Line

If you don't keep track of how much money you're making, you have no idea whether your business is successful or not. You can't tell how well your marketing is working. And I don't just mean you should know the amount of your total sales or gross revenue. You need to know what your net profit is. If you don't, there's no way you can know how to increase it. If you want your business to be successful, you need to make a financial plan and check it against the facts on a monthly basis, then take immediate action to correct any problems. Here are the steps you should take: * Create a financial plan for your business. Estimate how much revenue you expect to bring in each month, and project what your expenses will be. * Remember that lost profits can't be recovered. When entrepreneurs compare their projections to reality and find earnings too low or expenses too high, they often conclude, "I'll make it up later." The problem is that you really can't make it up later: every month profits are too low is a month that is gone forever. * Make adjustments right away. If revenues are lower than expected, increase efforts in sales and marketing or look for ways to increase your rates. If overhead costs are too high, find ways to cut back. There are other businesses like yours around. What is their secret for operating profitably? * Think before you spend. When considering any new business expense, including marketing and sales activities, evaluate the increased earnings you expect to bring in against its cost before you proceed to make a purchase. * Evaluate the success of your business based on profit, not revenue. It doesn't matter how many thousands of dollars you are bringing in each month if your expenses are almost as high, or higher. Many high-revenue businesses have gone under for this very reason -- don't be one of them.

What Is Accounting Anyway?

Anyone who's worked in an office at some point or another has had to go to accounting. They're the people who pay and send out the bills that keep the business running. They do a lot more than that, though. Sometimes referred to as "bean counters" they also keep their eye on profits, costs and losses. Unless you're running your own business and acting as your own accountant, you'd have no way of knowing just how profitable - or not - your business is without some form of accounting. No matter what business you're in, even if all you do is balance a checkbook, that's still accounting. It's part of even a kid's life. Saving an allowance, spending it all at once - these are accounting principles. What are some other businesses where accounting is critical? Well, farmers need to follow careful accounting procedures. Many of them run their farms year to year by taking loans to plant the crops. If it's a good year, a profitable one, then they can pay off their loan; if not, they might have to carry the loan over, and accrue more interest charges. Every business and every individual needs to have some kind of accounting system in their lives. Otherwise, the finances can get away from them, they don't know what they've spent, or whether they can expect a profit or a loss from their business. Staying on top of accounting, whether it's for a multi-billion dollar business or for a personal checking account is a necessary activity on a daily basis if you're smart. Not doing so can mean anything from a bounced check or posting a loss to a company's shareholders. Both scenarios can be equally devastating. Accounting is basically information, and this information is published periodically in business as a profit and loss statement, or an income statement.

Quasar software

Accounting has become more and more complex as have the businesses that use accounting functions. Fortunately, there are several excellent software packages that can help you manage this important function. Quasar is one such package. All versions of Quasar offer comprehensive inventory controls. In its most basic use, the inventory module allows a business owner to track the locations and quantities of all inventory items. Additionally, the inventory capabilities go beyond simple record-keeping. Manufacturers and wholesalers can assemble kits using component items; whenever a kit is assembled, the inventory representing its component items are adjusted accordingly. Items can be grouped into various categories and the groups can be nested many levels deep. Vendor purchase orders can be generated for items whose quantities are below a preset level. Costs and selling prices for items can be set and discounted in a myriad of different ways. Finally, these items can be reported upon to show such things as profits, margins, and sales per item. Sales and purchasing are another strength of Quasar. Customer quotes can be easily converted to invoices to be paid. Promotions can be created and discounts can be given based on date, customer, or store location. Margins can be reported upon for traits such as individual items, individual customers, or individual salesperson. Likewise, a purchase order can be created and converted to a vendor invoice, which can be paid in a number of different ways, including printing a check. Quasar can keep track of miscellaneous fees such as container deposits, freight charges, and franchise fees. The intelligent design of Quasar's user interface allows for quick and easy data entry. Some programs you may encounter are not optimized for keyboard use. These programs require you to move your hand to the mouse to select frequently needed options. While some of Quasar's menu options are only mouse-accessible, the bulk of Quasar's user interface is designed in such a way that you can keep you hands on the keyboard by using special shortcuts. This allows for faster data entry, which can save time (and therefore money) in the long run.

Building Cash Reserves

Building a financial cushion for your business is never easy. Experts say that businesses should have anywhere from six to nine months worth of income safely stored away in the bank. If you're a business grossing $250,000 per month, the mere thought of saving over $1.5 million dollars in a savings account will either have you collapsing from fits of laughter or from the paralyzing panic that has just set in. What may be a nice well-advised idea in theory can easily be tossed right out the window when you're just barely making payroll each month. So how is a small business owner to even begin a prudent savings program for long-term success? Realizing that your business needs a savings plan is the first step toward better management. The reasons for growing a financial nest egg are strong. Building savings allows you to plan for future growth in your business and have ready the investment capital necessary to launch those plans. Having a source of back-up income can often carry a business through a rough time. When market fluctuations, such as the dramatic increase in gasoline and oil prices, start to affect your business, you may need to dip into your savings to keep operations running smoothly until the difficulties pass. Savings can also support seasonal businesses with the ability to purchase inventory and cover payroll until the flush of new cash arrives. Try to remember that you didn't build your business overnight and you cannot build a savings account instantly either. Review your books monthly and see where you can trim expenses and reroute the savings to a separate account. This will also help to keep you on track with cash flow and other financial issues. While it can be quite alarming to see your cash flowing outward with seemingly no end in sight, it's better to see it happening and put corrective measures into place, rather than discovering your losses five or six months too late.

Investing and financing

Another portion of the statement of cash flows reports the investment that the company took during the reporting year. New investments are signs of growing or upgrading the production and distribution facilities and capacity of the business. Disposing of long-term assets or divesting itself of a major part of its business can be good or bad news, depending on what's driving those activities. A business generally disposes of some of its fixed assets every year because they reached the end of their useful lives and will not be used any longer. These fixed assets are disposed of or sold or traded in on new fixed assets. The value of a fixed asset at the end of its useful life is called its salvage value. The proceeds from selling fixed assets are reported as a source of cash in the investing activities section of the statement of cash flows. Usually these are very small amounts. Like individuals, companies at times have to finance its acquisitions when its internal cash flow isn't enough to finance business growth. financing refers to a business raising capital from debt and quity sources, by borrowing money from banks and other sources willing to loan money to the business and by its owners putting additional money in the business. The term also includes the other side, making payments on debt and returning capital to owners. it includes cash distributions by the business from profit to its owners. Most business borrow money for both short terms and long terms. Most cash flow statements report only the net increase or decrease in short-term debt, not the total amounts borrowed and total payments on the debt. When reporting long-term debt, however, both the total amounts and the repayments on long-term debt during a year are generally reported in the statement of cash flows. These are reported as gross figures, rather than net.

Depreciation reporting

In an accountant's reporting systems, depreciation of a business's fixed assets such as its buildings, equipment, computers, etc. is not recorded as a cash outlay. When an accountant measures profit on the accrual basis of accounting, he or she counts depreciation as an expense. Buildings, machinery, tools, vehicles and furniture all have a limited useful life. All fixed assets, except for actual land, have a limited lifetime of usefulness to a business. Depreciation is the method of accounting that allocates the total cost of fixed assets to each year of their use in helping the business generate revenue. Part of the total sales revenue of a business includes recover of cost invested in its fixed assets. In a real sense a business sells some of its fixed assets in the sales prices that it charges it customers. For example, when you go to a grocery store, a small portion of the price you pay for eggs or bread goes toward the cost of the buildings, the machinery, bread ovens, etc. Each reporting period, a business recoups part of the cost invested in its fixed assets. It's not enough for the accountant to add back depreciation for the year to bottom-line profit. The changes in other assets, as well as the changes in liabilities, also affect cash flow from profit. The competent accountant will factor in all the changes that determine cash flow from profit. Depreciation is only one of many adjustments to the net income of a business to determine cash flow from operating activities. Amortization of intangible assets is another expense that is recorded against a business's assets for year. It's different in that it doesn't require cash outlay in the year being charged with the expense. That occurred when the business invested in those tangible assets.

Depreciation

Depreciation is a term we hear about frequently, but don't really understand. It's an essential component of accounting however. Depreciation is an expense that's recorded at the same time and in the same period as other accounts. Long-term operating assets that are not held for sale in the course of business are called fixed assets. Fixed assets include buildings, machinery, office equipment, vehicles, computers and other equipment. It can also include items such as shelves and cabinets. Depreciation refers to spreading out the cost of a fixed asset over the years of its useful life to a business, instead of charging the entire cost to expense in the year the asset was purchased. That way, each year that the equipment or asset is used bears a share of the total cost. As an example, cars and trucks are typically depreciated over five years. The idea is to charge a fraction of the total cost to depreciation expense during each of the five years, rather than just the first year. Depreciation applies only to fixed assets that you actually buy, not those you rent or lease. Depreciation is a real expense, but not necessarily a cash outlay expense in the year it's recorded. The cash outlay does actually occur when the fixed asset is acquired, but is recorded over a period of time. Depreciation is different from other expenses. It is deducted from sales revenue to determine profit, but the depreciation expense recorded in a reporting period doesn't require any true cash outlay during that period. Depreciation expense is that portion of the total cost of a business's fixed assets that is allocated to the period to record the cost of using the assets during period. The higher the total cost of a business's fixed assets, then the higher its depreciation expense.

Inventory and expenses

Inventory is usually the largest current asset of a business that sells products. If the inventory account is greater at the end of the period than at the start of the reporting period, the amount the business actually paid in cash for that inventory is more than what the business recorded as its cost of good sold expense. When that occurs, the accountant deducts the inventory increase from net income for determining cash flow from profit. the prepaid expenses asset account works in much the same way as the change in inventory and accounts receivable accounts. However, changes in prepaid expenses are usually much smaller than changes in those other two asset accounts. The beginning balance of prepaid expenses is charged to expense in the current year, but the cash was actually paid out last year. this period, the business pays cash for next period's prepaid expenses, which affects this period's cash flow, but doesn't affect net income until the next period. Simple, right? As a business grows, it needs to increase its prepaid expenses for such things as fire insurance premiums, which have to be paid in advance of the insurance coverage, and its stocks of office supplies. Increases in accounts receivable, inventory and prepaid expenses are the cash flow price a business has to pay for growth. Rarely do you find a business that can increase its sales revenue without increasing these assets. The lagging behind effect of cash flow is the price of business growth. Managers and investors need to understand that increasing sales without increasing accounts receivable isn't a realistic scenario for growth. In the real business world, you generally can't enjoy growth in revenue without incurring additional expenses.

Revenue and receivables

In most businesses, what drives the balance sheet are sales and expenses. In other words, they cause the assets and liabilities in a business. One of the more complicated accounting items are the accounts receivable. As a hypothetical situation, imagine a business that offers all its customers a 30-day credit period, which is fairly common in transactions between businesses, (not transactions between a business and individual consumers). An accounts receivable asset shows how much money customers who bought products on credit still owe the business. It's a promise of case that the business will receive. Basically, accounts receivable is the amount of uncollected sales revenue at the end of the accounting period. Cash does not increase until the business actually collects this money from its business customers. However, the amount of money in accounts receivable is included in the total sales revenue for that same period. The business did make the sales, even if it hasn't acquired all the money from the sales yet. Sales revenue, then isn't equal to the amount of cash that the business accumulated. To get actual cash flow, the accountant must subtract the amount of credit sales not collected from the sales revenue in cash. Then add in the amount of cash that was collected for the credit sales that were made in the preceding reporting period. If the amount of credit sales a business made during the reporting period is greater than what was collected from customers, then the accounts receivable account increased over the period and the business has to subtract from net income that difference. If the amount they collected during the reporting period is greater than the credit sales made, then the accounts receivable decreased over the reporting period, and the accountant needs to add to net income that difference between the receivables at the beginning of the reporting period and the receivables at the end of the same period.

Balance sheet

A balance sheet is a quick picture of the financial condition of a business at a specific period in time. The activities of a business fall into two separate groups that are reported by an accountant. They are profit-making activities, which includes sales and expenses. This can also be referred to as operating activities. There are also financing and investing activities that include securing money from debt and equity sources of capital, returning capital to these sources, making distributions from profit to the owners, making investments in assets and eventually disposing of the assets. Profit making activities are reported in the income statement; financing and investing activities are found in the statement of cash flows. In other words, two different financial statements are prepared for the two different types of transactions. The statement of cash flows also reports the cash increase or decrease from profit during the year as opposed to the amount of profit that is reported in the income statement. The balance sheet is different from the income and cash flow statements which report, as it says, income of cash and outgoing cash. The balance sheet represents the balances, or amounts, or a company's assets, liabilities and owners' equity at an instant in time. The word balance has different meanings at different times. As it's used in the term balance sheet, it refers to the balance of the two opposite sides of a business, total assets on one side and total liabilities on the other. However, the balance of an account, such as the asset, liability, revenue and expense accounts, refers to the amount in the account after recording increases and decreases in the account, just like the balance in your checking account. Accountants can prepare a balance sheet any time that a manager requests it. But they're generally prepared at the end of each month, quarter and year. It's always prepared at the close of business on the last day of the profit period.

Gains and Losses

It would probably be ideal if business and life were as simple as producing goods, selling them and recording the profits. But there are often circumstances that disrupt the cycle, and it's part of the accountants job to report these as well. Changes in the business climate, or cost of goods or any number of things can lead to exceptional or extraordinary gains and losses in a business. Some things that can alter the income statement can include downsizing or restructuring the business. This used to be a rare thing in the business environment, but is now fairly commonplace. Usually it's done to offset losses in other areas and to decrease the cost of employees' salaries and benefits. However, there are costs involved with this as well, such as severance pay, outplacement services, and retirement costs. In other circumstances, a business might decide to discontinue certain product lines. Western Union, for example, recently delivered its very last telegram. The nature of communication has changed so drastically, with email, cell phones and other forms, that telegrams have been rendered obsolete. When you no longer sell enough of a product at a high enough profit to make the costs of manufacturing it worthwhile, then it's time to change your product mix. Lawsuits and other legal actions can cause extraordinary losses or gains as well. If you win damages in a lawsuit against others, then you've incurred an extraordinary gain. Likewise if your own legal fees and damages or fines are excessive, then these can significantly impact the income statement. Occasionally a business will change accounting methods or need to correct any errors that had been made in previous financial reports. Generally Accepted Accounting Procedures (GAAP) require that businesses make any one-time losses or gains very visible in their income statement.

Assets and Liabilities

Making a profit in a business is derived from several different areas. It can get a little complicated because just as in our personal lives, business is run on credit as well. Many businesses sell their products to their customers on credit. Accountants use an asset account called accounts receivable to record the total amount owed to the business by its customers who haven't paid the balance in full yet. Much of the time, a business hasn't collected its receivables in full by the end of the fiscal year, especially for such credit sales that could be transacted near the end of the accounting period. The accountant records the sales revenue and the cost of goods sold for these sales in the year in which the sales were made and the products delivered to the customer. This is called accrual based accounting, which records revenue when sales are made and records expenses when they're incurred as well. When sales are made on credit, the accounts receivable asset account is increased. When cash is received from the customer, then the cash account is increased and the accounts receivable account is decreased. The cost of goods sold is one of the major expenses of businesses that sell goods, products or services. Even a service involves expenses. It means exactly what it says in that it's the cost that a business pays for the products it sells to customers. A business makes its profit by selling its products at prices high enough to cover the cost of producing them, the costs of running the business, the interest on any money they've borrowed and income taxes, with money left over for profit. When the business acquires products, the cost of them goes into what's called an inventory asset account. The cost is deducted from the cash account, or added to the accounts payable liability account, depending on whether the business has paid with cash or credit.

Quick Look At The Standard Accounting System

It's been said by numerous eminent academics that the primary function of accountancy is to facilitate the maintenance of economic activity. This particular functionality is best realized in 2 main ways. One is by calculating and showing economic information. The other is through communicating the outcomes of this procedure to people who want to use them for different needs.

To illustrate, a business's accountants routinely appraise the net profit for a calendar month, a quarter or even a financial year and document these results in a statement of profit and loss that's called earnings statement or profit and loss accounts. These statements incorporate components along the lines of accounts receivable or what's owed to the business and accounts payable or what the firm owes to its creditors. This may also get pretty complicated with themes like retained earnings and accelerated depreciation. This is often at the greater levels of accounting and in the firm.

Much of accountancy mind is also associated with primary bookkeeping. This is the usual procedure that records every single transaction; each and every bill paid out, each dollar due, every single dollar and cent paid and accrued. Book keeping, although very much unappreciated by many individuals is of great relevance in the accountancy practice. This is due to the fact bookkeeping is the base by which accounting information are created. Subsequently, where the right book keeping is missing the job of accounting turns into next to impossible.

However the those who own the firm, which is usually private entrepreneurs or countless shareholders, are generally most concerned with the actual summaries of transactions, included within the accounting statement. The accounting statement summarizes a corporate entity's assets, liabilities in addition to results for any given period. Any value of an asset is really what it cost when it was first obtained. The financial statement at the same time documents exactly what the sources of the resources had been. Many assets are generally in the way of fluid assets and can very quickly convert into money. A fantastic example is trade debtors or simply put dollars payable to a business by its clients via its normal trading activities. Profits are as well an asset of the business enterprise.

In what's known as double-entry bookkeeping, all of the financial obligations will also be summarized. Certainly, a firm wishes to present a larger amount of assets in order to cancel out the financial obligations as well as show a nice gain. The control over these two parts is the essence of accountancy.

There exists a real model designed for executing this; not every firm or character may formulate their own systems for accounting. If they did, the consequence would be chaos! This structure is typically called accounting principles. They're the concept which control the correct way revenue in a given accounting period should be calculated and the way assets and liabilities of a company is generally recorded.

Managing Cash Flow for Company Growth

In any business, cash is the lifeblood that keeps all afloat. If your money is poorly managed, your company will not only fail to progress, but it might implode and become one of the high percentages of failed businesses. One cash flow problem in business is the time between paying suppliers and employees and the time you're collecting most from your customers.

In four relatively simple steps, you can work to keep better track of your cash flow and streamline the process to aid in company growth.

Step One: Cash Measurement

It might be tedious, but it's important to work on cash flow projections. You should not only project cash for the year, but go further into the process and project earnings by the quarter or even by the week.

Why? This will help you get a glimpse of the future. This process is different than other statistical analysis you'll do. This isn't the almighty crystal ball; it's just a tool to help you make an educated guess.

Add your cash on-hand, the projected cash to be received, and gather input from service reps, creditors, salespeople and others in your finance department. The question you're trying to answer is just how much cash you'll receive in total.

Next, you'll need to accurately project how much of the income will be spent. You'll have to know what the money is being spent on, why it's being spent, and how much will be left (profit). This includes rent, taxes, inventory, salaries, benefits, equipment, utilities, and other bills and expenses.

Step Two: Improve on your Company's Receivables

You're not always getting quick cash for every product sold in business. Basically, you want to use the information from your projections to help to streamline the money you'll receive i.e. you want to get paid quicker.

You can turn your receivables into quicker cash by offering discounts to customers paying up front. You could also require deposits, credit checks, and track the accounts of slow-paying customers.

Then the idea is to shore up your cash flow by getting rid of old inventory as quickly as you can. If this means discounting the lot, then go for it. You want your business running fluently so it can grow.

Step Three: Improve on your Company's Payables

Increasing sales and growing your business isn't enough to sustain the growth. You also have to keep a watchful eye on all of your expenses. Expanding and streamlining your business will most likely result in areas with fast-growing expenses. It's imperative you recognize this and put a stop to it.

One of the first things you can do is stay in line with your creditors' terms. Some people like to jump the gun when they have cash. They'll pay after two weeks instead of after a month. Use the full month to your advantage here and do not pay until a payment is due.

You should also learn to use technology to your advantage at every step. If you can pay your bills electronically, then set a tight schedule for payment and take care of it quickly.

As with most aspects of business, communication is important. Build up trust in your business relationship by informing all suppliers and creditors of your financial situation.

You can also start to discount shop once you've streamlined this process. Of course, you don't want to go around purchasing the cheapest products available, but looking closely at discounted or wholesale rates is a wise move.

Step Four: Shortfall Survival is Key

Even the best businesses falter at times and end up on the short end of the stick without enough new money to pay off bills. The best way you can survive a shortfall is to follow the rest of the process carefully.

Hopefully, you'll predict the shortfall coming at least a week in advance by handling your projections properly. This will allow you to get the funding from good sources.

Nobody wants to lend money to a panicked businessperson needing the money right away. Contrarily, a businessperson who predicts the shortfall and seeks out help through a bank or a supplier is taken seriously and is usually given help.

If you follow these four steps, cash flow shouldn't be a problem at all. Even the worst storms won't tear the house down if you're always thinking ahead in the process.

Invoice Example - Free Downloads and 5 Things You Must Know

If you are using a limited company as your payment structure you will need to raise invoices for the services you provide or goods that you sell, this article explains how to prepare one with an example, the best practices you need to know, double taxes case example, proforma invoice example and in the end I will give you tips about how to find a good invoice example online, I will also include a couple of invoice example free download in Microsoft Word and Excel format for you to use.

1. How to prepare an invoice - examples and introduction

Information that should be included in an invoice includes:

A generic invoice should contain: The word "invoice" A unique reference number (in case of correspondence about the invoice) Date of the invoice Name and contact details of the seller Tax or company registration details of seller (if relevant) Name and contact details of the buyer/ customer - Purchaser's name or firm name Date that the product was sent or delivered or the service or services rendered,or the work that was done. Purchase order number (or similar tracking numbers requested by the buyer to be mentioned on the invoice) Description of the product(s) -(sales invoice) or of the services ( service invoice) Unit price(s) of the product(s) (if relevant) Total amount charged (optionally with breakdown of taxes, if relevant) Payment terms (including method of payment, date of payment, and details about charges late payment) Discount,total before discount,and total after discount. (if relevant) Tax,total before tax,and total after tax. (if relevant) Shipping details if different from buyer details.The US D efense Logistics Agency requires an employer identification number on invoices.

If you are permitted to submit your invoice via email then it is useful to convert the invoice into PDF format so that it cannot be altered. There is a free PDF creator which you can use at PDFCreator. This creates a PDF file from any application which can then be emailed to the client.

Better off, if you can use a software system, it will automatically generate invoice in PFD format, you can also email it straight away from within the a software program.

2. Invoice examples and best practices

Invoices are just part of the picture that mirrors the company's image and business standing. A successful business will have a good template that has all the details. The important details are of the company, the buyer and the shipment. There should be the logo and contact details of the company on the very top of an invoice. This should be followed by details of the buyer and the destination of the shipment. The details of the shipment should clearly outline what it consists of, the quantities as well as the unit cost of each item. This should be followed by the cost of the purchase, other costs, any tax that has been included and lastly the total cost of the shipment.

Your invoice should be prompt, so that you can get paid by your clients on time, while invoicing is not a fun task, it's a necessary one: by keeping clients informed of your expectations, you will get paid punctually and reinforce your professionalism.

After going over some best practices for creating invoices, I will review some great (and not so great) invoicing practices, so that you can spend less time creating invoices and more time doing the things you love!

So here are some general guidelines, best practices and examples that will help you make sure your invoices are up to specification.

a.Their Details and Yours - must be complete This is basic stuff, but you can't afford to forget it. In addition to the client's address, make sure to include the name of the client's contact person who handles your account! A company with three employees can figure out what you're doing; but in big companies, invoices get misplaced, especially if there's confusion over who belongs to which project.

You'll also need your company name, your name, address, telephone number and email address. If they have any questions about the charges, contacting you should be as easy as possible.

b.Itemized List of Services - must be specific People want to know what they've paid for. Most people will not pay for something described merely as "Design." Tell them exactly what they have received: e.g. "Design of three-page static website for Sporting Goods Department." Be as specific as possible. In five years, would both you and the client know what you meant by your description? Also, specify whether the charge is project-based or hourly.

c. Include Your Terms - must be clear When do you expect the client to pay you? What happens if they miss the deadline? To be able to send follow-up or overdue notices or to charge interest, you need a rock-solid paper trail that no one can argue with.

d. Let Them Know How to Pay You - must be easy Do you want a cheque mailed to you, a money transfer, flowers? Be explicitly clear about what you expect and in what form. It is usually best to discuss with the client beforehand their preferred method or to come to an agreement about a method you both like.

If you want a money transfer, provide all the necessary information. Foreign transfers need more than your account number: in some countries, you need your International Bank Account Number (IBAN) or a Bank Identifier Code (BIC). International transfers also double-charge you: the client's bank might charge you $20, and your own bank might charge you another $15 to accept the payment. Make it clear which of you will absorb these charges, and talk it out with them. PayPal is another option, but you still get charged a percentage of the transaction.

e. Numbers and Numbers and Records and Books - must be trackable Referring to "invoice #9048," rather than "That invoice I sent you last month, I think on a Tuesday," is much easier to track for both you and your client.

Assign numbers to your invoices systematically, consistently and chronologically. Some people number their invoices by year (for example, 2009043 would be the 43rd invoice of 2009). You could also specify a code for the project. For example, ABC06 would be the 6th invoice for the ABC project that you're currently working on. Having an invoice and project numbering system keeps everything in line.

f. Thank Them, and Ask Them to Thank You - must be sincere Money is often a touchy subject, so politeness about it is a good idea. Your clients are paying you money that they've earned with blood, sweat and tears, so let them know you appreciate it. You should also invite them to contact you if they have any questions and, more importantly, make it clear that you appreciate their present (and future) business.

Some people also welcome testimonials; for example, by adding, "Let us know how we did. Write a testimonial and sent to... " If you're building your website's testimonials page or want to complete the feedback loop, this is a great way to get clients to give feedback on your work. If they have suggestions for making the process smoother, it's also a great opportunity for you to improve.

g. Don't Forget: You're a Designer - must be professional Imagine this, you're at an expensive restaurant. Every detail is perfect: the food was fantastic, the service excellent and the atmosphere rich and plush. Then, you receive the bill, which is printed on cheap paper with low-quality ink. What would you remember about this experience?

Most people spend hours on their website design, business cards and resumes but then use a template for their invoice. The invoice is your last contact with your client, and it should share the attention to detail, branding and style of your other elements. By creating a beautiful, clear invoice, you are saying that you care about the little details.

Most importantly, make sure you have all the necessary information. Make sure there are no spelling mistakes and that your spacing is consistent. Customize your invoice as much as you can. Your logo is a must, but colors and a style that match your other branding items will make it a joy to pay (well, as much as is possible).

3.Invoice example With GST & PST An invoice not only shows the customer or client how much money is due but provides tax information, in some countries multiple taxes may apply, for example in Canada it is required to put the Supplier's identification numbers for GST and QST taxes purposes. Whenever a taxable sale is made, the customer must be informed that GST and QST are added to the selling price. As there are no standard invoices required by law for this purpose, you must indicate the amount of the taxes on the cash register receipt; on the invoice or contract remitted to the customer. If you choose to indicate the GST and the QST, the amounts must be stated clearly.The European Union requires a VAT (value added tax) identification number on invoices between entities registered for VAT.

There are certain pieces of information that have to be on your invoices if you are charging GST, HST and/or PST. Your invoice must include:

•your business name

•the date of the invoice

•your Business Number (also known as the GST Registration Number)

•the purchaser's name

•a brief description of the goods or services performed

•the total amount paid or payable

•the terms of payment

•an indication of items subject to GST at 5% or HST at the appropriate provincial rate, or that the items are exempt, and either the total amount of GST/HST charged, or a statement that the GST/HST is included and the total rate of tax

•if applicable, an indication of items subject to PST (also known as RST) at the provincial rate, or that the items are exempt, and either the total amount of PST charged, or a statement that the PST is included and the total rate of tax.

4.About proforma invoice

A Proforma invoice is an invoice provided by a supplier in advance of providing the goods or service. A quotation in the form of an invoice prepared by the seller that details items which would appear on a commercial invoice if an order results. It is more of a customs declaration form used in international trade that describes the parties involved in the shipping transaction, the goods being transported, and the value of the goods. It is the primary document to declare value for customs. It is not a true invoice, because the seller does not record a pro forma invoice as an accounts receivable and the buyer does not record a pro forma invoice as an accounts payable.

Proforma invoices basically contain much of the same information as the formal quotation, and in many cases can be used in place of one. It should give the buyer as much information about the order as possible so arrangements can be made efficiently. The invoices inform the buyer and the appropriate import government authorities details of the future shipment; changes should not be made without the buyer's consent.

As mentioned for the quotation, the points to be included in the proforma are:

1.Seller's name and address 2.Buyer's name and address 3.Buyer's reference 4.Items quoted 5.Prices of items: per unit and extended totals 6.Weights and dimensions of quoted products 7.Discounts, if applicable 8.Terms of sale (include delivery point) 9.Terms of payment 10.Estimated shipping date 11.Validity date

When a buyer asks for a quotation the seller should always provide a pro-forma invoice. A pro-forma invoice is an invoice sent in advance of the commercial invoice, which is the final bill that the buyer agrees to pay. Some of the advantages of pro-forma invoice to the importer include to show to his government for foreign currency allocation, opening letters of credit and most importantly, to have a detailed information on the transaction that can help him plan. An accurate and professionally submitted pro forma-invoice can help buyers to make a decision and agree to the quotation.

5.How to Find a Good Invoice Example Online

If you are a new businesses and need to issue official business documents like invoices, receipts, purchase orders and the like. It is not easy to come up with an appropriate format or template in a few minutes. Fortunately, the internet has been providing information such as finding a good invoice example.

As long you are looking for something online, you have to be prepared to face some hurdles. There are numerous hurdles that you will encounter and the top on the list are scams. Although you may find an invoice format or template that you think is good, you may be made to pay a lot of money for it. It is thus important to look for trustworthy sites that will not use up a huge chunk of the company funds.

One such site is the Microsoft site. The site offers businesses different templates for all the forms and documents needed to keep a company running. It is also the best place to find an invoice example, which will look perfect and above all official and professional.

The following are a few types of Microsoft Word and Excel invoice example I had developed which you can download and use freely from my blog link at the bottom of this article.

Excel invoice example - InvoiceTemplate_DescriptionOnly Excel invoice example - InvoiceTemplate_WithShipTo Excel invoice example - InvoiceTemplate_DoubleTaxes Excel invoice example - InvoiceTemplate_SingleTax Excel invoice example - InvoiceTemplate_HourlyRated

Inventory Accounting Methods

Companies such as resellers or manufacturers often needs to keep products or raw materials in stock. This stock of items is called as inventory. Inventories makes up the most valuable current asset for such companies so it is important to determine and keep track of their costs. Inventory accounting is the process to do that. There are various methods for inventory accounting. Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) has defined such accounting methods. Four most common GAAP accounting methods are - Specific Identification Method, Weighted Average Method, FIFO Method, and LIFO Method. Choosing an appropriate method is very important because it can impact earnings and current assets of a company. A particular method can be well suited for some business types than others. Companies can choose any of these methods irrespective of how actually their inventories are sold. They must adhere to guidelines from IRS in this matter.

Specific Identification Method:

In this method companies records cost to acquire goods as well as cost of goods sold for each inventory item individually. This method is most suitable for companies which has limited inventory, cost per unit of inventory items are high and items are relatively unique. Jewelers, car dealers, art galleries etc. are the examples of businesses where this method is suitable. It is a most precise way of determining inventory prices but is too cumbersome for companies with large or medium-sized inventories.

Weighted Average Method:

In Weighted Average Method companies determines the weighted average cost of the inventory. This method is suitable for companies that maintain a large inventory of uniform items such as fuels or grains.

FIFO Method:

FIFO stands for First In First Out. In FIFO method it is assumed that the oldest inventory or the inventory which was purchased first is sold first. Inventory from recent purchases are sold later. This method is suitable for companies selling perishable goods such as food or drugs.

LIFO Method:

LIFO stands for Last In First Out. In LIFO it is assumed that the most recent purchased inventory is sold first. Prior or old inventory is sold later. A company in coal business is a good example where LIFO method is obvious. Coal on top of the coal pile is always going to be sold first.

Comparison of above methods:

Lets understand difference between above four methods through example. Assume that a company purchases four identical items at different times during accounting period (For Specific Identification method assume items are unique).

1st item is purchased at a cost of $15 2nd item is purchased at a cost of $18 3rd item is purchased at a cost of $20 4th item is purchased at a cost of $22

Assume that a company now sells one item of this inventory at $25. The cost of goods sold, profit and ending inventory balance will differ depending on the choice of accounting method.

If 2nd item is sold using Specific Identification method then the cost of goods sold would be $18, profit would be $7, and ending inventory balance would be $57 ($15+$20+$22).

Using FIFO method the cost of goods sold would be $15, profit would be $10, and ending inventory balance would be $60 ($18+$20+$22).

Using LIFO method the cost of goods sold would be $22, profit would be $3, and ending inventory balance would be $53 ($15+$18+$20).

Using Weighted Average method the cost of goods sold would be $18.75 (($15+$18+$20+$22) / 4), profit would be $6.25, and ending inventory balance would be $56.25 ($18.75 x 3 remaining items).

Specific Identification method's numbers are not comparable against numbers from other methods because of uniqueness of its items in inventory. It is evident from the numbers of remaining three methods that FIFO has the lowest cost of goods sold, the highest profit, and the highest ending inventory balance. Companies following FIFO method pays higher taxes because of higher profits. LIFO is just opposite and offers substantial tax savings due to lower profits and lower inventories. It is important to note that in example cost of item was inflated at each purchase. If the cost of purchase is reversed in order i. e. deflated then the effects of FIFO and LIFO will be just opposite. The Weighted Average method falls in between FIFO and LIFO methods.

Since choice of inventory accounting method has significant effect on company's income statement and balance sheet it is very important to consult knowledgeable resource such as an accountant or CPA.

Certified Quickbooks Pro Advisor: Providing Help for Small Business Quickbooks Software Users

Quickboo ks is accounting software specially designed to meet the needs of small businesses. It is known for its versatility. Financial information about the company can be easily accessed with Quickbooks. It has an easy to use layout that even new users will find it simple to use. With the software, small businesses can generate tax reports quickly. It brings less worry to business owners especially during tax season as tax reports can be easily generated.
A Certified Quickbooks Pro Advisor is an accountant or bookkeeper who undertakes certification requirements of the software. He/she is somebody who is familiar with all the functionalities of the software. The course usually takes 16 hours and is taken at the accountant's or bookkeeper's convenience. Before somebody becomes Certified in Quickbooks, he/she must meet the minimum 85% grade in the test that one has to take at the end of the program's numerous sections. One is not allowed to go on to the next section unless he/she has met the minimum grade requirement. Once the whole program is finished, a certificate can be printed to prove that one has really finished and met all the requirements to earn the certification. Once certified the accountant or bookkeeper can have a profile on the Quickbooks website where businesses usually search for certified advisors. The CPA can also claim up to 16 CPE units after being certified.
A Certified Quickbooks Pro can help small businesses who use the Quickbooks accounting software in training on advanced areas of accounting and bookkeeping. Since most Quickbooks users do not have accounting background, the Quickbooks Advisor can help these users in understanding the process of bookkeeping.
The Certified Advisor can also help small businesses in training the users in using the Quickbooks software. There are Quickbooks Windows and Mac versions and the Pro Advisor is knowledgeable in both versions. The certified Pro Advisor can help users appreciate the software. No matter how complex or how unique the business is, the Pro Advisor can help the user take advantage of all features of the Quickbooks software.
Acceptable Quickbooks experts can be easily found in the Quickbooks Pro Advisor website. To find one near the location of business, one will just have to enter the zip code of the business in the field and click on Search. A list of Pro Advisors will be shown on the screen and one will just have to choose which of the Pro Advisors he/she wants. Contact information, short biography and certification details will also show along with the names of the certified advisors. Ratings and reviews are also available for each Pro Advisor which can help the business owner decide who to contact. The business owner may choose someone who lives near the company's office so he/she can be available for consultation as soon as possible or one can choose an advisor who has experience with the industry the company is in, or one can choose a Pro Advisor with the most positive reviews.